|
The Snapshots of the Turkish History
Starting from the Establishment of the Ottoman Empire
The First World War and the Mondros Cease-Fire
Agreement
The Ottomans joined the First World War in 1914 as a result
of fait accompli. During the war, the empire suffered a
loss of four hundred thousand casualties and being defeated
by the Allies, signed an armistice at Mondros on October
30, 1918. Following this armistice, the Ottomans were forced
to sign the Sevres Treaty on August 10, 1920 which aimed
at dividing the lands of the empire.
The Turkish nation in protest to the Mondros Armistice
and the Sevres Treaty started its War of Liberation under
the command of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. After the victory,
the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara abolished
the office of the Sultan on November 1, 1922, thus ending
631 years of Ottoman rule in the world.
Efforts to Disintegrate the Empire
The Ottoman Empire collapsed on October 30, 1918, when
the Mondros Armistice was signed, after the Ottoman state
and its allies had lost the Great War. The treaty had very
severe terms some of which were: The Straits of the Bosphorus
and the Dardanelles would be open to the ships of the Entente
Powers; Turkish military fortifications would be occupied;
the Ottoman Army would be demobilized; Turkish warships
would be surrendered to the Entente Powers; all means of
comunication and ammunition stores would be controlled by
the Entente Powers; all Turkish institutions and transport
could be used by the Entente Powers. Article 7 of the Treaty,
which was the most intolerable of all, stated "In the
event of a situation threatening their security, the Entente
Powers have the right to occupy any area of strategic importance".
According to this, the Entente Powers could occupy the country
when they wished. In fact, after a short period, the Entente
Powers began to occupy the country for trivial reasons.
The occupation began on November 1,1918. They first landed
their troops at Mosul, Iskenderun, the Straits of the Bosphorus
and the Dardanelles, then they occupied various parts of
Anatolia and Thrace. Meanwhile, England had proposed that
the straits would have an international stutus; some Arab
and Armaneian regions would cede from Turkey and a small
part of land would be left to the Sultan with Konya or Bursa
as the capital. In accordance with this, the Entente Powers
had Greek troops landed at Izmir on May 15, 1919, under
the protection of their own battleships. With this incident,
the Ottoman State actually collapsed, and its legal existence
was to be determined at the peace conference according to
the wishes of the Entente Powers.
Subversive Organizations
Shortly after the Mondros Treaty, many organizations and
societies appeared which were against national independence.
Besides such pro-Ottoman and caliphate societies as the
"Sulh ve Selameti Osmaniye Firkasi (Peace and Ottoman
Salvation Party), the "Teali Islam Cemiyeti" (Moslem
Promotion Society), the "Hürriyet ve Itilaf Firkasi"
(Liberty and Entente Party), there were other societies
of the minorities such as the "Mavrimira" and
the "Pontus Society". Their subversive activities
during the First World War continued after the Treaty in
order to prevent Turks from establishing a Notional State
in Anatolia.
The National War
Throughout its history, the Turkish nation had not faced
such difficult conditions. Between the years 1911 and 1918,
she was forced to enter three wars, ending in the defeat
of the Turkish Army; and these wars caused much material
and moral damage. The only source of hope for the Turkish
nation which had become weak, tired and helpless was the
belief in liberty and independence. With this belief, people
began to organize under the name "Müdafaai Hukuk
Cemiyetleri" (Societies for the Defence of Rights).
There were; the "Trakya-Pasaeli Müdafaa Heyeti
Osmaniyesi" (Ottoman Defence Committee of Thrace-Pasaeli),
the "Izmir Müdafaai Hukuk Osmaniye Cemiyeti"
(Izmir Society for the Defence of Ottoman Rights), the "Sarki
Anadolu Müdafaai Hukuk Cemiyeti" (Society for
the Defence of the Rights of the Eastern Provinces), the
"Hareketi Milliye-Reddi Ilhak Teskilati" (The
National Movement-Organisation for the Rejection of Annextion),
and the "Trabzon Muhafazai Hukuk Cemiyeti" (Society
for the Protection of the Rights of Trabzon). These organizations
which were all nationalistic, united at the Sivas Congress
under the name "Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaai Hukuk
Cemiyeti" (Society for the Defence of the Rights of
Thrace and Anatolia).
Erzurum and Sivas Congresses
After the occupation of Izmir by the Greeks, on May 16,
1919, General Mustafa Kemal was sent to Anatolia as the
9th Army Inspector with full authority. His landing in Samsun
on May 19, 1919, is considered as the beginning of the War
of Liberation. The fact that the Anatolian Revolution began
on May 19th may be well understood from some words of the
report prepared by Mustafa Kemal shortly after landing in
Samsun on May 22: "Turks can not endure foreign control
or protection. The Greeks have no right in Izmir. The occupation
is not permanent. The Nation believes in Turkish Nationalism
and agrees on the principle of national sovereignty. It
will try to achieve this". General Mustafa Kemal, who
had the support of the people, moved from Samsun to Amasya.
After consultations with army commanders and governors,
he prepared a circular note, the Amasya Letter (Amasya Tamimi)
and issued it on June 21-22, 1919. This letter was signed
by General Mustafa Kemal, Rauf (Orbay), General Ali Fuat
(Cebesoy) and Refet (Bele). The aim of the circular was
to make public that the unity of the country was at stake;
the Istanbul Government was weak and helpless; the nation
was determined to be independent, and it was necessary to
hold a national congress in Sivas. After the issue of the
Amasya Letter, the Istanbul Government, under English pressure,
relieved Mustafa Kemal of his duties. In opposition to this,
General Mustafa Kemal resigned from the Army. Continuing
his efforts, he held the Erzurum Congress on July 23, 1919.
This Congress, which elected Mustafa Kemal president, lasted
14 days and at its conclusion, the following decisions were
taken: "The nation will oppose every kind of foreign
occupation and interference; an interim government will
be formed in the event of the failure of the Ottoman Government
to safeguard the independence of the country; the nation's
willpower is supreme; Christians cannot be given any concessions
which could disturb political order; mandates or protectorates
can not be accepted; a national assembly should immediately
be formed." In addition, in order to organize the national
societies in the eastern provinces, a statute was prepared.
The Sivas Congress was held on September 4, 1919. Here the
decisions of the Erzurum Congress were re-examined, and
it was agreed that the national societies throughout the
country would be united under the name "Anadolu ve
Rumeli Müdafaai Hukuk Cemiyeti" (Society for the
Defence of the Rights of Anatolia and Thrace). Character.
The Istanbul Government tried to prevent the congress, but
was unsuccessful.
With this action of the Istanbul Government, relations
between Anatolia and the Istanbul Government were completely
broken off. On September 13-14, 1919, Mustafa Kemal informed
the commanders, the governors and the Sultan in the name
of the Congress that "the Council of Representatives"
would represent the Turkish Nation. Upon this, the Damat
Ferit Pasa Government fell and it was replaced by the General
Ali Riza Government. Mustafa Kemal promised to help General
Ali Riza on the condition that he respected the decisions
taken at the Erzurum and Sivas Congresses. On October 20,
1919, Mustafa Kemal, as Chairman of the Council of Representatives,
and General Salih, the Minister of the Navy of the Istanbul
Government signed the Amasya Protocol with which it was
agreed that free elections would be held to elect deputies,
the resolutions and decisions of the Sivas Congress would
be accepted, and the "National Assembly" should
meet somewhere other than Istanbul, for security reasons.
However, the National Assembly met in Istanbul and Mustafa
Kemal was elected Erzurum Deputy.
In the meantime, a meeting was held in Sivas with commanders,
members of the Council of Representatives, and others. At
this meeting, the conditions were examined and some resolutions
were agreed upon. Besides, on December 27, 1919, Mustafa
Kemal moved to Ankara where there were more suitable conditions
for coordination of the activities.
National Pact
The Ottoman Parliament met in Istanbul on January 12, 1920,
under the majority of the members of the "Defence of
Rights". On January 28th , the Parliament made public
that it accepted the "National Pact" in conformity
with the principles of the Sivas Congress and the decision
of the Society for the Defence of the Rights of Anatolia
and Thrace (The Society for the Protection of Anatolian
and Rumelian Rights). The principles of the"National
Pact" were as follows:
1-The future of the territories inhabited by an Arabmajority
at the time of the signing of the Mondros Treaty will be
determined by a referendum. On the other hand, the territories
which were not occupied at that time and inhabited by a
Turkish-Moslem majority are the homeland of the Turkish
nation.
2-The status of Kars, Ardahan and Artvin may be determined
by a referendum.
3-The status of Western Thrace will be determined by the
votes of its inhabitants.
4-The security of Istanbul and Marmara should be provided
for. Transport and free-trade on the Straits of the Bosphorus
and the Dardanelles will be determined by Turkey and other
concerned countries.
5-The rights of minorities will be issued on condition
that the rights of the Moslem minorities in neighboring
countries are protected.
6-In order to develop in every field, the country should
be independent and free; all restrictions on political,
judicial and financial development will be removed.
With the beginning of the Greek attacks on the western
front on March 3, 1920, the General Ali Riza Government
was compelled to resign. It was followed by the occupation
of Istanbul by the Entente Powers on March 16. After the
dissolution of parliament, on March 19, 1920, Mustafa Kemal
issued a communiqué stating that they would work
for national freedom and the establishment of a new state.
The parliament would be composed of deputies of the old
parliament who would come to Ankara and by new members to
be elected by the Turkish people.
Meanwhile, General Damat Ferit, who had become Prime Minister
again, claimed that the National Forces were committing
high treason. He formed an army called "Kuvay-i Inzibatiye"
(Disciplinary Forces) against the National Forces. Mustafa
Kemal was trying to face both this army and the revolts
provoked by the Istanbul Government. In a communiqué
issued on April 22,1920, he stated that the "Büyük
Millet Meclisi" (Grand National Assembly) would meet
on April 23, and it would have the authority to represent
the nation.
The Turkish Grand National Assembly
With the meeting of the Grand National Assembly in Ankara
on April 23, 1920, the national struggle became more significant
in the eyes of the world, both, legally and politically.
After electing Mustafa Kemal chairman, the Assembly made
the following important resolutions:
1.National power concentrated in the National Assembly
is the fundamental principle for the future of the country.
2.The Grand National Assembly is vested with legislative
and executive powers. A committee to be elected from within
the Assembly will exercise executive power. The chairman
of the Assembly will also preside over this committee.
The Damat Ferit Government was continuing its efforts against
national forces which were becoming more and more powerful.
Damat Ferit was trying to persuade the Anatolian people
to revolt against the National movement and help the enemy
forces. Besides, by a decision handed down by the First
Martial Law Court on May 4, 1920, Mustafa Kemal's military
titles were revoked and he was sentenced to death.
For a certain period, the government of the Turkish Grand
National Assembly had to use the majority of its forces
to suppress revolts provoked by the Palace. After order
was established throughout Anatolia, the government was
able to concentrate its forces and began to form armies
to expel the invading enemies from the country.
The attempt to establish an Armenian state, according to
the Sevres Treaty, was prevented by the resistance of the
troops commanded by Kazim Karabekir, Commander of the Army
in that region. On November 18,1920, the forces called a
cease-fire and peace on the Eastern Front was achieved by
the Gümrü Treaty, signed on December 2-3, 1920.
The struggle in the western front, which began with the
occupation of Izmir by Greek forces, was carried out by
national societies and forces in various regions in the
form of civil resistance prior to the establishment of regular
armies. First, on May 29, 1919 Ali (Çetinkaya), Governor
of Ayvalik district, and his friends, resisted the enemy
forces attacking other regions from Izmir. Some of the leaders
of the struggle at the Western Front were Yörük
Ali Efe and Demirci Mehmet Efe in Nazilli, Halil Efe in
Salihli, Parti Pehlivan Aga, and Sari Efe (Edip).
On June 20, 1919, an enemy division landed in Tekirdag
and occupied Thrace. The first battle with the enemy on
the western front was on October 24, 1920, at Gediz. National
forces which were defeated were forced to leave Yeniseahir
and Inegöl and retreated to the Dumlupinar hills. The
Commander-in-Chief reorganized the Western Front and divided
it into two; the Western and Southern front. The Western
Front would be commanded by Colonel Ismet (İnönü)
and the Southern Front by Colonel Refer (Bele).
The First and Second Battles of İnönü
On January 6, 1921, the enemy began to advance from Bursa
and Usak to Eskisehir and Afyon but were defeated at the
First Battle of İnönü on January 10, 1921, and
retreated. After this first success on the Western Front,
the "Entente Powers" saw it necessary to make
some alterations in the terms of the Sevres Treaty. Althouh
they could not make any important resolutions during the
conference held in London between February 21 and March
11, 1921, this conference was very useful as it publicized
the Turkish war of National Independence all over the world.
Besides, the Constitution (Teskilat-i Esasiye Kanunu) which
had been discussed since the opening of the Grand National
Assembly, was accepted and came into force on January 20,
1921, after the success at the First Battle of İnönü.
As the London Conference had not achieved the expected
results, the Entente Powers supported the Greek Forces in
a new attack, but they were defeated again at the Second
Battle of İnönü, on March 31, 1921. After the
second victory at İnönü, the Commander-in-Chief
united the Western and Southern branches of the Western
Front. On July 10, 1921, the enemy, which was supported
by new forces, attacked on two fronts. This was their last
success and they reached, Eskisehir and West of Sakarya.
Under a law accepted on August 5, 1921, Mustafa Kemal Pasha
was given mandate of the Grand National Assembly as Commander-in-Chief.
He took command of the army on August 12, 1921. At the end
of the Battle of Sakarya which was fought on a front extending
about 100 kms., between August 23 and September 13, 1921,
the enemy was forced to withdraw and the enemy's offensive
in Anatolia ended.
After the Sakarya victory, the Entente Powers proposed
a cease-fire on March 22, 1921. When Turkey laid down as
a condition, on April 5, 1922, that the enemy forces in
Anatolia were to withdraw, this offer was not accepted.
The Battle of the Commander-in-Chief
In the period of preparation to drive out the enemy from
Anatolia, there were some people in the Assembly who still
tried to solve the problems by discussion. Moreover, it
could be seen that some members of the Assembly did not
trust Mustafa Kemal and opposed the extension of Mustafa
Kemal Pasha's duties as Commander-in-Chief. But the difference
of opinions in the Assembly could be reconciled in a short
period and the preparations for a final and absolute victory
were completed. The big offensive started on August 26,
1922, under the command of Mustafa Kemal, General Fevzi
(Çakmak), and General Ismet (İnönü). On August 25,
1922, at the "Battle of the Commander-in-Chief"
at Dumlupinar, the enemy forces were encircled and taken
prisoner; thus the offensive achieved its end. But the Turkish
Army continued the operation; Izmir on September 9, Bursa
on September 11, and finally, on September 18, the whole
country was liberated from the enemy. The Mudanya Armistice,
signed on October 11, 1922 led the way to Lausanne.
Proclamation of the Republic and the Reforms
The National Struggle started when Mustafa Kemal Pasha landed
in Samsun May 19, 1919; and a new Turkish State was established
with the meeting of the Turkish Grand National Assembly
on April 23, 1920. After the National Struggle ended in
victory and the Mudanya Armistice was signed, the Ottoman
Empire and the institutions under its control were necessarily
liquidated. The Entente Powers decided to call the Ottoman
Government together with the Ankara Government accepted.
On the other hand, on November 1, 1922, the Grand National
Assembly announced that the Caliphate and the Sultanate
were separate and the Sultanate was abolished. The second
step was taken with the establishment of the Republic on
October 29, 1923. It was followed by the acceptance of a
law, on March 3, 1924, stating that the Caliphate was abolished
and the ottoman Dynasty was to be deported. On the same
day, the law concerning the abolition of the Ministry for
Religious Affairs, of the Evkaf (Waqfs) and of the Ministry
of the General Staff and the law concerning the unification
of education were promulgated. Thus, all the schools controlled
by the Ministry for Religious Affairs and the Ministry of
Foundations were closed. By the unification of instruction,
all schools would be controlled by the Ministry of National
Education in accordance with national and secular principles.
On April 20, 1920, the new Constitution reorganizing the
state was promulgated by the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Reorganization continued with new reforms, in addition
to the foundation of the Republic, the unification of instruction
and the abolition of the Sultanate and Caliphate. On November
25, 1925 the Hat Reform was accepted and the fez which had
caused revolts when it had been first ordered to be warn,
was considered illegal. The September 2, 1925 decree concerning
the closing down of dervish retreats and tombs, and the
abolition of the office of tomb keepers was given final
approval by the law enacted on November 30, 1941.
In order to prevent the confusion caused by the use of
different calendars by Moslems, Orthodox and Catholics,
the Christian calendar was accepted on December 26, 1925
and began to be used on January 1, 1926. Meanwhile, international
time was approved, and Sunday was accepted as a holiday
instead of Friday.
Reforms of the Trade Penal Law started during the Tanzimat
period, continued as the principles of Sheriat were abolished.
The Civil Code came into force on April 4, 1926, and the
Law of Obligations on October 4, 1926.
With the Turkish Civil Code, Turkish women, gained their
basic rights and reached a new milestone on the road of
progress. The Municipal Act of 1930 and the National Assembly
Act of 1934 granted suffrage to Turkish women. Thus, the
Turkish woman possessed almost all basic political rights.
After the Turks accepted Islam, they abandoned their original
alphabets, Orhon and Uigur, and began to use the Arabic
script. However, the Arabic script was not suitable for
the Turkish language; especially the fact that vowels widely
used in Turkish caused problems in reading Turkish texts
written in Arabic. They tried to solve this problem in 1878,
but could not. In 1908, the problem was dealt with again.
Different opinions were put forward. Some people supported
maintaining the Arabic script, others proposed that Arabic
characters should be written separately with some special
signs to read vowels. On the other hand, many people proposed
to use the Latin script instead of Arabic and these different
opinions could not be reconciled. After the foundation of
the new state, the problem of the alphabet was first discussed
in 1923, at the Izmir Economic Congress. A paper was submitted
proposing the adoption of the Latin alphabet. The Congress
agreed that this paper should be submitted to the Ministry
of National Education. The Ministry studied this subject
in 1927. It was agreed that Latin symbols would be used
in physics, chemistry and mathematics courses in the universities
and academies. In the same year, stamps were issued bearing
"Türkiye Postalari" (Turkish Post) written
in letters. In 1928, the Grand National Assembly promulgated
the law concerning the use of international numerals. Also,
the Ministry of National Education formed a commission to
study the new Turkish alphabet. This ended in the promulgation
of the law concerning the use of the new alphabet on November
1, 1928. Also, on, April 10, 1928, the phrase "Islam
is the official religion of the state" was removed
from the Constitution in accordance with secular principles.
The changes in the judicial system were accomplished by
the Surname Act accepted in the Grand National Assembly
on June 21, 1924; every Turkish citizen should have a surname.
In addition, it was decided on November 24, 1934 that the
great savior, Mustafa Kemal Pasha would be given the surname
"Atatürk".
The Alphabet Reform in 1928 led to a reform in language.
Atatürk established the Turkish Language Institution
on July 12, 1932. He had started the language reform on
September 2, 1930.
Necessary measures have been taken in every field in order
to elevate the country to the level of contemporary civilizations.
In line with the motto "Peace at Home, Peace in the
World" several agreements were reached by the neighboring
countries.
After his death, on November 10, 1938, the Turkish people
followed in his path.
The Second World War seriously effected the self-sufficient
Turkey, but thanks to the intelligent attitudes of the Turkish
administration, the country and the nation were saved from
the great danger of war.
During the post-war period a multi-party era started in
Turkey. Transition to a multi-party parliamentary system
in Turkey was first initiated by Atatürk and Turkey
experienced short-terms of multi-party systems in 1924 and
in 1930. Unfortunately, the political developments were
detrimental to the newly established Turkish Republic and
the two political parties were abolished by themselves.
The multi-party system which Atatürk desired to initiate
as his "second greatest reform after the Proclamation
of the Republic" was started after the Second World
War by his comrade-at-arms, President Ismet İnönü.
The first election was held in 1946. The representatives
of the opposition party won seats in the Assembly. In the
second election, held in 1950, the ruling party whose Chairman
was Ismet İnönü became the opposition party in
the Turkish Grand National Assembly. Celal Bayar's party
assumed office.
The 1950's were the years when the winds of war were blowing
in the world. For the sake of the world, the Turkish Brigade
in Korea within the framework of the United Nations came
face to face with the war.
Source: TURKEY Yearbook 1983/Prime Ministry Directorate
General of Press and Information
|
Turkey Tourism & Travel
